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Contents
List of Illustrations……………………………………………………………………….Page
3
Introduction.…………………………………………………………………......Page
4
Main text…………………………………………………………………………………Page 6
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….Page 13
Images…………………………………………………………………………….Page 15
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………..Page 19
List of Illustrations
1.) The Nuclear
Family – AtlantaBlackStar.com -
https://atlantablackstar.com/2014/12/29/12-ways-black-children-are-discriminated-against-in-foster-care-system/nuclear-family/
2.) The semiotics of Charles Sanders Peirce –
Symbols
http://stuffaboutliterature.blogspot.com/2015/05/peirces-triadic-model-interpreting-signs.html
3.) Mars and Venus Symbols -
https://creativemarket.com/BestPics/573527-Mars-and-Venus-icons-on-white
4.) Body Positive Movement - MIGA Swimwear: Sharing Stories in the
Disfigurement Community to Combat Stigma -
https://www.thebodypositive.org/blog/miga-swimwear-sharing-stories-in-the-disfigurement-community-to-combat-stigma
5.) Alyssa Milano’s Original #MeToo Tweet -
https://twitter.com/Alyssa_Milano/status/919659438700670976/photo/1?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E919659438700670976&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gmanetwork.com%2Fnews%2Fhashtag%2Fcontent%2F629680%2Fmetoo-trends-on-twitter-as-alyssa-milano-encourages-sexual-abuse-victims-to-come-forward%2Fstory%2F
6.) Rachel McLish - The first woman to win a Ms
Olympia title in 1980 – https://www.greatestphysiques.com/rachel-mclish/
7.) Facebook Gender identity options http://www.takepart.com/article/2014/02/18/facebook-announces-50-new-gender-options
Introduction
This
essay will address the questions and concepts of masculinity. It will firstly
address, how can this concept be identified? Is it a determined set of values
and principles or does it take more than one meaning over time? The same could
be asked about the fitness industry, in order to begin to understand why it has
become increasingly popular in modern life. Throughout this investigation into
masculinity, and its association with the fitness industry, several important
areas will be addressed in order to answer these questions. The essay will
explore some of the questions that society has about what gender is, how it is
defined through a range of different signifiers (Pierce, 1903) and what they
mean to different generations. By first looking into the origins of masculinity
and how its meaning has changed for some, we can begin to better understand why
identities play a role in society and particularly the fitness industry. This
will identify questions such as, whether being a man is something symbolic or
biological and how masculinity is linked to gender and sex.
The
purpose of the essay is to firstly, look into the way in which masculinity is
defined in modern society, including the roles that have been defined as
masculine (Connell, 1993) and the struggle that some men feel when trying to
fit these roles (Pleck, 1981). It will also establish whether men act according
to their perceived roles or socially perceived identity, and whether these
roles or identities are necessary to fitness. As a result of the findings, the
second part of the essay will look into the actions of men and their efforts to
conform to these predetermined roles and values (Pleck, 1981). Overall, the
investigation may be able to reveal how these roles in society can create
unhealthy behaviours but also how they might be positive for the development of
society in future. It may also reveal what the fitness industry will do in
future, in order to adapt to the social changes of our society and improve
people’s lives.
Masculinity
by its very definition is most often understood to be the traditional qualities
that men possess, which make them ‘men’. These qualities include, but are not
limited to, having a muscular or heavy build, being attractive to women, determined
and courageous. However, looking back in time reveals that masculinity did not
always follow the same values and qualities. As far back as the 1970s, gender
started to become a more discussed topic among feminists and scholars alike
(Davis, 1975). Defining masculinity was one of the issues that would be
discussed among this topic, along with femininity, the roles of genders and the
identities that individuals possess. Feminism is likely to have played a role
in defining masculinity, as much as it has femininity during the 1970s and 80s.
Although this does not seem too long ago, it was a time when feminism would
bring light to the issues of gender conformity, social constructs and sex roles
(Davis, 1975). All of these would shape the society we now live in today and
spark debates about equality, gender and body image. In 1955, sexologist Dr
John Money introduced the terminological distinction between biological sex and
gender as a role. Throughout his studies into hermaphroditism, Money found
gender to be a separate identifier from the sex. This meant sex was
identifiable through biological differences in males and females and gender was
a societal construct, created with the purpose of identifying males and females
(Money, 1955). This approach to identity opened up a new way to look at gender
and revealed the social constructs that defined different people. Before this,
gender had not often been used as a term that identifies a person. As a result
of Money’s studies into gender, the term appeared more frequently in contexts,
such as social sciences and documents by the World Health Organisation.
If
we think about how the family has changed over time, we can see that the roles
and constructs people abide by are different. The nuclear family became most
prevalent in the 1970s, even though it is synonymous with the 1950s and 60s (see
figure 1). The reason for this would have been because most families at the
time were living in a household, consisting of a breadwinner father, a
household mother and 1 or more biological children (Hur, 2017). In 1983, The
British Social Attitudes Survey was introduced to record data surrounding
the opinions of the British public. In 1987, it was found that 48% of
participants were in support of gendered separated roles, were men would be
breadwinners and women would look after the home (Park et al, 2013). Feminism
during the 1970s addressed issues such as these in western culture and proposed
an alternative approach to the more patriarchal ideas of the time. Women such
as Natalie Davis, had the opinion that there shouldn’t be a single focus on the
subjected sex. Rather, there should be more studies into the significance of
the sexes and the gender groups they fall under. In Davis’ book she says, ‘Our
goal is to discover the range in sex roles and in sexual symbolism in different
societies and periods, to find out what meaning they had and how they
functioned to maintain the social order or to promote its change.’ (Davis,
1975, p90). This suggests that different societies and cultures have different
interpretations of sex roles and symbolism, and also implies that these roles
and symbols function differently depending on the society in which it is found.
Therefore, it is likely that these roles were made to find a balance, maintain
order or to overcome societal problems.
The
American semiotician Charles Sanders Pierce theorised that the ‘signifiers’ we
associate with the ‘signified’, do in fact have some relation to one another
(see figure 2). He then divided this concept into three different parts: The
Icon, which is the physical signifier of the idea or thing it is trying to
evoke; The Index, which is the direct link to or causal effect of something and
the Symbol, which has no relation to the signifier or signified but instead is
something we as a society have decided to give meaning to (Pierce, 1903). To put
this into context, an icon could be the spoken or written word ‘gender’, which
we associate with the identity of people in society. An example of an index
would be seeing a man dressed as a woman and associating it with femininity or
homosexuality. However, this is not always the case, as an index can also be
varied in interpretation depending on the person. Therefore, what we might see
as feminine or homosexual could in fact be considered masculine to the man used
in the example. Finally, an example of a symbol in the context of gender would
be the ‘Mars’ and ‘Venus’ representations of male and female (see figure 3). We
know these to be symbols of male and female because they are reinforced through
popular culture and society has collectively agreed on their meaning.
Theories of masculinity
Studies
into gender and masculinity only began to gain serious attention in the last 50
years. Much of this attention to the subject of masculinity and its
identification was brought about when different theories began to emerge. The
most notable and referred to of all theories of masculinity is Raewyn W.
Connell’s hegemonic masculinity. Connell’s concept of hegemonic masculinity is
seen as a culturally ideal form of masculinity. This includes the inequalities
of powerful men over women and other men, hierarchy of masculinities and the
patriarchal power that certain men of this quality possess (Connell, 1993). It
is said to be the most dominant form of masculinity, among the 4 identified in
Connell’s hierarchy. The second form of masculinity, after hegemonic is the
‘complicit masculinity’. This consists of men who do not possess all hegemonic
qualities, but to some extent still have the benefits of hegemony and dominance
over ethnic minorities and women. For people of ethnic minority backgrounds,
‘marginalised masculinity’ is considered to be their status in Connell’s view.
In her view, they are seen as inferior to hegemonic and complicit
masculinities, but they are still above ‘subordinate masculinity’, which is
deemed the lowest ranking status in the hierarchy and is applied to gay men or
those who are effeminate (Connell, 2005). On the contrary, hegemonic
masculinity is said to be something that is exclusive to men, even though women
can possess some of the same qualities. Generally, this form of masculinity
contains certain features that others do not, as explained in Rachel Jewkes
2015 article when she says:
‘A core element of the construction of hegemonic
masculinity is heterosexuality, and to a greater or lesser extent hegemonic
masculinity is constructed as a gender position that is as much ‘not gay’ as it
is ‘not female’.’ (Jewkes, 2015, p96)
To this extent, we know that western society has in recent
years become more progressive and accepting of new masculine identities, but
Connell’s concept of an ideal masculinity seems to remain the most prominent
and sought after. One explanation for why this may be could include the
constructed gender role of men of the past and the values that made them ‘men’.
For some in today’s society, this image of a traditional male is seen as the
ideal masculine figure to aspire to. As mentioned previously, there had been
limited exposure on the study of masculinity before the 1970s and 80s, because
gender had not been considered to be more than just social constructs (Davis,
1975, Money, 1955). However, psychologist Joseph Pleck suggests in his 1981
book, The Myth of Masculinity, an alternative viewpoint to previous
studies of masculinity. He refers to a period in time between the 1930s and
1980s, in which gender role identity paradigm (GRIP), as he calls it,
would have been the current state of masculinity. This paradigm suggests that
in order to develop a healthy personality, one must conform to the
stereotypical values of their biological sex and the gender roles that came
with it (Pleck, 1981).
Pleck’s alternative to GRIP, was to introduce another
paradigm known as the gender role strain paradigm (GRSP), which focuses
more on the social definitions of the roles of males and females. The strain
that Pleck refers to is the way in which boys and men feel pressured to conform
to the traditional forms of masculinity, which in turn can result in
behavioural problems or other stresses in their lives. One example used by
Pleck was that absent fathers or overprotective mothers would result in a
child’s failure to achieve the ideal male identity, often resulting in emotionally
driven behavioural problems, from school disruption to crime on the streets. As
a result of this alternative paradigm, studies into gender can identify the
strains men endure when trying to meet the expectations of their traditionally
defined values and roles (Pleck, 1981). The paradigm proposed by Pleck could be
useful for further studies into gender roles in future, because it provides
evidence of role conformity having negative effects on the younger generations.
Gender roles
After looking at different theorists’ perspectives on gender
and the roles they believe have been constructed, it was necessary to look into
these roles in more detail in order to come to an understanding of the
behaviours of men and how they differ from the past. Having already established
Connell’s hegemonic masculinity and Pleck’s Gender Role Strain Paradigm, it is
therefore possible to analyse how these theories may be put into context. In
the context of men’s health, we know that failure to live up to these assigned
societal roles can have a detrimental effect on an individual's mental or
physical health (Pleck, 1981). This may be because the traditionally identified
role of men was to be the breadwinner and provider of the family (Park et al,
2013). Therefore, paid employment is linked to a strong masculine identity and
failure to meet this requirement is what creates a gender role strain (Pleck, 1981). In Steve Robertson’s paper, Theories of
Masculinity and Men’s Health-Seeking Practices, there is a clear suggestion
as to why these roles exist in society. He believes these roles are ‘encouraged
through a range of implicit or explicit rewards and sanctions’ (Robertson,
2009, p2), meaning there is reward for the
efforts of conformity but there are also boundaries or rules to conforming to
the role. As previously mentioned, Rachel Jewkes believes that in order to be
considered a hegemonic masculine male, you would need to be heterosexual,
non-gay and not a woman. Therefore, for men who are anything other than
heterosexual or identify as women, a struggle is presented in conforming to
these hegemonic roles. This only further supports Pleck’s theory of a gender
role strain paradigm.
In another study, it was found that the attitudes men have
towards their own health could be influenced by the ideas surrounding masculine
traits (Robertson,
2009). For example, it was suggested that men
would often refuse to seek help or treatment for health concerns because they
believe it was something only women would be concerned with. This shows that
men are trying to be strong and stoic, in the image of an ideal masculine
identity, at the expense of their own well-being. However, there were also
contradictions of this narrative as some men would also show they had a balanced
lifestyle, which included healthy eating and exercise (Robertson, 2009). To add
to this, another suggestion points out that health today carries more moral
meaning, as presenting oneself as a morally good citizen means showing some
concern for your own health. This is where another struggle for men is
presented, as they try to find a balance between not showing concern and
staying healthy in order to appear as the hegemonic masculine man (Robertson,
2009). If masculine traits are changing over time, then it may mean that the
attitudes towards health could change as well. For example, what may have
symbolically been considered ‘strong’ in the past would have associations with
physical ability. Whereas today, we symbolise ‘strong’ with men showing
emotions and exposing vulnerability. In relation to health, this could mean
that mental well-being of men is better recognised as a result of showing
emotion or ‘being strong’. It also indicates that the change to the symbolic
meaning of strength could be beneficial to today’s society, and the stigma
surrounding mental health issues.
As previously noted, hegemonic masculinity is primarily seen
as exclusively heterosexual (Jewkes, 2015). One other theory of men’s attitudes
to health would be that homosexual men are often seen as more concerned with
their health and appearance (Robertson, 2009). This could
suggest that there is a link between men’s health practices and sexual
orientation, as well as other factors including ethnicity and class. Robertson
also includes reference to interviews with gay men, which found that the reason
they are more health conscious and cared for their appearance was so that they
could ‘distance themselves from ‘straight’ men’ (Robertson, 2009, p8). However, on the contrary to this theory, there are
many other men who are in good health, take pride in their appearance and still
possess hegemonic qualities as straight men. It would be unfair to assume that
all men avoid health issues out of fear of being ‘outed’ as having less
masculine traits or values. In relation to fitness, in particular public
sports, it has been found that team games are generally played by masculine
men. As evidenced in Eric Anderson’s article, Sport journalists' views on
gay men in sport, society and within sport media, ‘no player in any of the
most popular professional men’s soccer leagues in Europe (e.g. Barclays Premier
League, La Liga, etc.) has ever publicly come out as gay through the media
during or following his career’ (Anderson et al, 2013, p2). This suggests that
team sport is considered masculine by today’s definition and the men who play
it are likely ‘straight’. Therefore, a difference is presented in what is
considered sport and what is considered fitness. Perhaps we associate
masculinity with these sports because there are no gay men involved, or perhaps
it is related to competitiveness. Being competitive is one core principle of
hegemonic masculinity (Connell, 2005), and team games promote competitiveness
with a one team takes all mentality.
This
might suggest that our idea of health today has also changed, as there are
varied attitudes towards personal health, which includes mental and physical
well-being. One particular example today would be the rise of the Body-Positive
Movement (BPM). Emerging from other movements such as the fat acceptance
movement, BPM offers a more universal approach to body acceptance (see figure
4). This community have over recent years, garnered a lot of attention from
body-positive activists, health professionals and others. The fundamental idea
behind the movement is for people to be more accepting of the body they have,
as a way to live a happier life without dissatisfaction of physical image.
However, the movement has in recent years been met with criticism, as some
believe that it promotes unhealthy body types, which are sending out the wrong
message to younger generations. Although the movement encourages people to be
more confident in their own skin, it often neglects the notion of health being
an issue. As previously stated, men are more likely to ignore health issues and
well-being, in an effort to remain masculine (Robertson, 2009). Therefore, as
the body-positive movement primarily targets women, men are at a disadvantage
when it comes to concerns for health, as they are assumed to be stronger and
less worried about body image. This could also indicate that BPM strongly
relates health with happiness, which in turn could present problems. These
problems may include obesity, heart disease and other unhealthy practices.
In the same way that masculinity has adapted over time in its
meaning and variations, femininity has also taken on new approaches. What were
once seen as polar opposites, have now become much more than just traits of
‘men and women’. When we think about femininity, we associate it with
nurturing, gentleness or sensitivity. This is generally because it too is a
social construct, which has throughout time assigned certain roles and
expectations for women. More rights for women over the last 100 years have
meant a shift in society’s definition of what it means to be feminine.
Therefore, like masculinity, femininity can be identified through different
cultures in several different ways. In modern western society, femininity can
be identified as something empowering, smart and creative in a person's
character. In Grayson Perry’s 2016 book, The Descent of Man, he explains
how this change in attitudes to femininity could potentially create a fairer
and more prosperous society, in which both women and men are embraced for their
feminine values (Perry, 2016).
'I see masculinity as being how men behave at
present. I think it needs to change to include behaviours that are at present
regarded by many as feminine, behaviours that are sensible, life enhancing and
planet-saving.' (Perry, 2016, p4)
Although Perry suggests femininity to be something that would
benefit both men and women, it is clear that femininity has in recent years
become more recognised as something women should embrace and express in their
own way. As evidenced
by Tracey R. Williams, it is becoming more
apparent that femininity has also taken on new and positive connotations as
more powerful women are using clothing as a way to express their femininity and
‘to reject the notion that they must dress like men in order to be successful’
(Williams, 2013, p3). Williams also explains how there is a struggle for
equality, as there is a difference in the meaning of traditional femininity and
the meanings it carries today. Traditional femininity is seen as the values from
the first half of the 20th century and particularly the 1950s. Traits for
femininity of the time included ‘sociability, humbleness, others-orientation,
domestic orientation, passivity, dependence (on men) and submissiveness’
(Williams, 2013, p4). In response to this period of femininity, ‘resistance’
femininity during the 1960s and 70s would embrace ‘independence, assertiveness,
rationality, powerfulness, strength and control’ (Williams, 2013, p5).
There are also existing contradictions of today’s feminism,
it’s meaning and goals. In the digital age, it has become apparent that
feminism today is alive and more prominent than ever. Campaigns and trending
social debates are what surround today’s feminism, as well as criticism from
both men and women of its intention. What was once symbolic of embracing
political, economic and social equality has now multiplied into different
variations of feminism. Trending hashtags such as #MeToo were staple points of
recent feminism, in which women would share their personal experiences of
harassment, sexual assault etc (see figure 5). This could be a sign that
feminism is symbolic of strength and unity, as well as solidarity. However,
there is evidence to suggest that #MeToo caused backlash for those who were
falsely accused of harassment or assault (Piacenza, 2018).
Fitness
industry
The state of the fitness industry has over several years
become one of the biggest industries in western society, with a worth of over
£5 billion in 2018 and over 7’000 gyms now opened across the UK. Why is it that
the fitness industry is growing so rapidly and what are the reasons for
people’s pursuit of fitness? In this section, there will be evidence that may
be able to answer these questions as well as the state of fitness in the near
future, as a result of the changes to gender roles and the influence of social
media. Fitness has taken on so many connotations and meanings over the years
that it is defined more by the individual and their relationship with fitness.
The aim of this section will be to identify the correlation
between masculinity and muscularity or fitness in general. Through identifying
the differences between evolutionary factors, lifestyles and the influence
society has from media ideals, it will be possible to understand why people
choose to pursue fitness and whether they do it for health or image. One theory
suggests that many people pursue something in life because they are searching
for meaning or purpose. This philosophy of essentialism was first idealised
thousands of years ago by Plato and Aristotle, in ancient Greece. They believed
that everything had a core purpose or set of properties, which would make
something what it is. Without these properties it would be something entirely
different. In the context of people’s lives, they believed that we are all born
with essence, which makes us the person we were born to be. This was a theory
that lasted until the late 1800s, when it was challenged by another philosopher
named Friedrich Nietzsche, with the introduction of nihilism. This theory that
Nietzsche believed in meant that life was meaningless and that we are born
without a purpose. Perhaps, finding purpose in our lives is what presents to us
a struggle when it comes to conformity.
Another philosopher by the name of Jean-Paul Sarte, added to
this theory of nihilism during the mid 20th century. He believed that if we are
born first then it is up to us to decide for ourselves what our purpose or
essence is. There is no predetermined path that we need to abide by, only the
way we choose to live our lives. This could suggest that the influences in our
lives are something that allow us to dictate how we live and what our essences
are (Sartre, 1943). Though this theory suggests that we are in control of our
meaning and purpose in life, it is still true that there are factors which limit
our freedom, including the upbringing from our parents, the laws set by
government and the religions or beliefs we may choose to follow. This in turn
relates to how gender can predetermine how we will live our lives and the
things we are interested in following, in search of our meaning or purpose. A
term often used by existentialists is ‘Absurd’, which refers to our search for
answers or meaning in a meaningless world. This theory of existentialism could
prove that although people pursue fitness with the intention of becoming a
certain way, whether it be a change in their personality or how they look, in
the end there is no true meaning as to why it is necessary or relevant.
However, thinking of the meaning of life as subjective will mean that if this
pursuit of fitness is what gives some people a purpose in their life then it is
a positive thing to them.
It would be fair to assume that today we live in a
competitive society, which promotes hard work and dedication to something we
are good at. With that in mind, the fitness industry has capitalised on this
idea of dedication, as it takes time, effort and consistency to get to a
certain goal. We know that through hard work we are rewarded for our efforts
and often encouraged and praised by other. Therefore, in a society that seeks
approval from others, men pursuing fitness could be explained as a way for them
to get the approval they desire. Bodybuilding for example, is something that
many people pursue because society has idealized muscular body types as
desirable. Therefore, a lot of men decide to dedicate time and effort into this
activity because they know they will be praised for their efforts and
consistency, which in turn reflects their character as more desirable to
others. However, this is not always the case, as some may choose to pursue a
healthier lifestyle in order to improve their mentality or relationships, for
example. Men may choose to join a gym in the efforts of reaching a personal
goal that will ultimately benefit their life in some way, whether it be by the
approval of others or to find balance and structure in their own life. The
approval received from others is what can give people more meaning and purpose,
as a result.
Body dissatisfaction was for a long time something that was
more prevalent in females, until studies began to discover that males were fast
approaching parity with females when it comes to body dissatisfaction (McCreary
& Sasse, 2000). The body image ideals portrayed in the media have resulted
in an expectation that many men feel they have to conform to, which in turn can
result in compulsive exercise regimes, eating disorders and often unhealthy
practices. The ideals referred to are predominantly muscular body types, as the
media has portrayed this as the most desirable and attractive build. As
explained by April R. Smith, the difference in the media ideals and the average
male build is something that increases the likeliness of eating disorders or
body dissatisfaction, as the ideals cannot be achieved by everyone and are
unrealistic expectations to fulfil (Smith et al, 2011). Furthermore, as a
result of these struggles men are likely to show symptoms of depression, lower
self-esteem and psychological well-being (Bergeron & Tylka, 2007). Other
more extreme harmful practices include the use of diet pills or steroids, in an
attempt to achieve an unnaturally achievable body type.
In the previously mentioned theory of Gender Role Strain
Paradigm (Pleck, 1981), men would feel pressure to conform to what
R. W. Connell called the hegemonic masculinity. In addition to this, a study
into male body image and its relation to sexual orientation found that gay men
were more likely than ‘straight’ men to experience body image dissatisfaction,
which was evidenced by a heightened drive for thinness, eating disorders and
body disturbances (Murray & Touyz, 2012). Like the Gender Role Strain
Paradigm suggests, gay men are more likely than their ‘straight’ male
counterparts to care about their physical appearance and presentation.
Therefore, this could suggest that the reason more gay men experience body
image dissatisfaction and eating disorders as a result, is because they are
concerned with their physical appearance. This is likely due to their
susceptibility to media influence and the reinforced thin body ideals they
pursue (Robertson, 2009).
Although media influence has been a primary focus of concern
in this topic, it is not the only contributing factor in men’s pursuit of a
muscular body type. One other explanation for this need of a more physically
fit build would be through evolutionary factors. Typically, men are seen as
physically stronger than women as biological investigations have evidenced this
(Bishop & Cureton, 1987). Men’s association of a muscular build with
masculinity could be because of heterosexual women’s attraction cues to
dominance and status (Smith et al, 2011). These attractions are something that
have always existed within human biology and therefore they are not constructed
social factors. In April R. Smith’s book, Muscularity versus Leanness,
some of the evolutionary factors surrounding attraction are explained in more detail
and how they relate to fertility. For men, evolution shows that men desire
women who have wider hip ratios, as this is seen as a sign they are likely to
be healthy mothers when carrying a child in the womb. For women, evolution
shows that there is desire for a strong physique and dominant status, as these
are characteristics they wish to pass to their offspring (Smith et al, 2011).
Perhaps there are certain evolutionary factors that play a role in our
society’s drive for muscularity. However, it is also evident today that there
are women who also pursue a more muscular physique with their own body. During
the 1980’s in particular, women’s bodybuilding became a more prominent,
competitive activity. Many women competed for the titles, and similar to their
male counterparts, began using performance-enhancing drugs in order to get
bigger (see figure 6). This shows that even in the 80’s women would defy
stereotypical body types of gendered roles. Having a more muscular build, as
opposed to a toned figure shows that women too can possess the same competitive
values and status as their male counterparts.
Conclusion
Masculinity in itself is something that carries more than one
meaning, particularly in today’s society. The shift in what masculinity
symbolised in the past to what it represents today is evident in our idea of
strength. What we once established to be a ‘strong’ man (physically superior,
courageous and assertive), have now taken on new meanings such as emotionally
strong and mentally strong. This could mean that more men will find comfort in
sharing their emotions and dealing with any mental health problems. As a result
of this, we can begin to break down social stigma and allow people to pursue a
happier life. Joseph Pleck’s gender role strain paradigm provided evidence of the struggles of
conformity and what some men feel when expected to live up to these assigned roles. The solution to this in today’s society is to
recognise new identities that make roles less constricting and more inclusive
to everyone. It was found that the shift in signifiers for masculinity, gender
and sex roles would mean society would be more inclusive and respectful of
individual identities. However, when several identities carry similar criteria
and characteristics there is a need for limitation because ‘defining gender too
broadly could lead to a definition that has little meaning’ (Mayer, 2016, pp88)(see
figure 7). The gender roles of the past are slowly becoming more outdated
because changes made to the divisions of labour, equal rights and shifting
attitudes demand less constricting ways to live our lives.
As a result of these social changes, society has been able to
improve its standard of living, mental and physical health, and open up new
possibilities that were unachievable in the past. However this also meant there
were divides in masculinity among men. Homosexual men in particular, were found
to distance themselves from straight men because they were more likely to put
effort into their appearance. Furthermore, there was evidence to suggest that
fitness would be divided as a result, with players in team sports being predominantly
straight and homosexual men having little involvement (Anderson et al, 2013).
Overall, it became apparent that masculinity could not be directly associated
with men’s pursuit of fitness, because firstly, there are more than one
identified masculinities (Connell, 2005) and secondly, there were several other
factors that could attribute to the same goal. This included the influence of
social media, the search for purpose in one’s life and evolutionary factors. As
for the future of the fitness industry, it is likely that there will be
significant changes to the marketing strategies of fitness companies, as
society becomes more diverse and socially inclusive. Making fitness a more
accessible part of people’s lives would mean making changes to the current state
of fitness. This may include opportunities for people of all genders or sexual
orientation in team sports, to the healthy eating practices encouraged by
society.
‘Fitness by contrast, is anything but ‘solid’:
“It cannot by its nature be pinned down and circumscribed with any precision”.’
(Bauman, 2011: 77)
Images
Figure 1
The Nuclear Family
https://atlantablackstar.com/2014/12/29/12-ways-black-children-are-discriminated-against-in-foster-care-system/nuclear-family/
Figure 2
The Semiotics of Charles Sanders
Peirce – Symbols
http://stuffaboutliterature.blogspot.com/2015/05/peirces-triadic-model-interpreting-signs.html
Figure 3
Mars and Venus
https://creativemarket.com/BestPics/573527-Mars-and-Venus-icons-on-white
Figure 4
Body Positive Movement
MIGA Swimwear: Sharing Stories in the
Disfigurement Community to Combat Stigma
https://www.thebodypositive.org/blog/miga-swimwear-sharing-stories-in-the-disfigurement-community-to-combat-stigma
Figure 5
Alyssa
Milano’s Original #MeToo Tweet
https://twitter.com/Alyssa_Milano/status/919659438700670976/photo/1?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E919659438700670976&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gmanetwork.com%2Fnews%2Fhashtag%2Fcontent%2F629680%2Fmetoo-trends-on-twitter-as-alyssa-milano-encourages-sexual-abuse-victims-to-come-forward%2Fstory%2F
Figure 6
Rachel
McLish - The first woman to win a Ms Olympia title in 1980
https://www.greatestphysiques.com/rachel-mclish/
Figure 7
Facebook
Gender identity options
http://www.takepart.com/article/2014/02/18/facebook-announces-50-new-gender-options
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