OUGD601 - Module evaluation

The aim of the essay was to discover ways in which masculinity, gender and sex roles are continuously changing over time. From investigating this part of the essay, it was found that there were detrimental affects of traditional roles of gender on today's society as some people still feel that they need to conform to tradition values in order to appear a certain way. It was also found that gender had only recently become a topic of popular debate, as it had been disregarded as unimportant in the past.

This new approach to gender and recognising identities means that boundaries set by traditional society are beginning to be broken. This as a result, has provided people with more opportunities to pursue careers, express their feelings and feel comfortable in a more accepting environment. As a result, these changes in society could prove to benefit the acceptance of all people and build more meaningful relationships.

The second part of the essay would explore how these themes would relate to the fitness industry of today and what will change in the future as a result. This proved that there was a divide in what is considered fitness and what is considered sports, with much of the sports remaining to have problems involving identity and inclusivity of all genders. What was recognised, was that these issues may soon be tackled with the rise of organisations which push equality for all and scrutinise against discrimination. However, there were some complications to these organisations, including the #MeToo movement, which had been criticised for false accusations against innocent people.

In response to the essay, the practical investigation would propose ways to make branding and packaging more universal and inclusive to everyone. Through research into existing subscription services, a brand identity could be produced. This identity would utilise the appropriate skills and materials needed to build a successful image, that would both remain neutral and avoid gender specific design.

What was learnt by the end was that the production methods used in creating the brand were successful at communicating the intention. However, there could have been improvements made to the choice of material used during the final stages. Overall, the knowledge gained from this experience will prove to be useful for similar projects in the near future. This will also allow further practice to consider how it will work when applied to particular context.

OUGD601 - Ethical considerations

As the themes of the essay were about identity and gender in particular, it was important to assess how the work may be interpreted by audiences. Throughout the development of the brand, there was a need for the identity to be universal and therefore more inclusive of all people. One thing that was particularly important during early stages, was to make sure that the work would not be offensive when created or when presenting the ideas to peers. Luckily, the project did not encounter any issues of offence and it remained inoffensive in its material, research and production. The research methods and practicality of the investigation were both supervised by tutors and assessed based on their ethical approaches.

OUGD601 - Project Statement

OUGD601 Project Statement

As the essay explored themes of masculinity, gender roles, symbolism and fitness, it was possible to find answers to some of the questions that were proposed prior to the investigation. The aim was to find out whether masculinity has a link to the fitness industry and whether the symbolic meaning of masculinity has changed as a result. After exploring different areas of research, it was found that the attitudes and meanings of masculinity were vastly different in the past in comparison to the present day. Before the 1970s, masculinity and gender studies were not considered valuable topics of discussion, whereas today it has become a widely debated topic. This means that the way in which people identify themselves has also become more accepted and respected in society, as a result.

As society adapts to these changes to attitudes, it became apparent that there were long-term effects of the traditional gender roles. Men were likely to experience struggles of conformity in modern society, as they perceived traditional values of hegemonic masculinity to be the most desirable. However, these changes also allow men today to be more open about their struggles and seek help for mental health issues. Therefore, it was proved that the shifting attitudes and signifiers of masculinity are becoming a more positive solution for today’s society.

In an attempt to replicate these changing attitudes, the practical response to the essay would explore packaging design with identity in mind. By first researching the gender specific design styles and approaches, it was possible to understand how certain identities are targeted by brands. The brands that were explored in particular were related to fitness in some way, as it was found in the essay that there was a divide in the genders that pursued fitness and sports. One particular example of this was the lack of homosexual men in public team sports. Therefore the approach to the practical was to be more inclusive of all genders and less gender specific, in an attempt to make fitness a more appealing activity while reaching different audiences.

In terms of the design of the practical, the idea of fluidity or neutrality was an important factor to communicate. This would allow the outcome to appeal to more than one target audience and avoid gender specific styles. As a result of this, the practical investigation looked into the interpretations of layout, colour application and appropriation of materials and processes. The final result of the practical response was a set of designs that showed a consistent identity throughout and communicated a neutral approach to packaging.

Overall, the module provided the opportunity to test different theories of design and understand how issues around gender could be resolved using appropriate means of communication. As a result of the module, several new transferable skills have been learnt, which will definitely prove beneficial for future practice as well as portfolios.

OUGD601 - Finished Essay (Including Bibliography, figures and contents)

	Alexander J Pankhurst BA (Hons) Graphic Design 2018/19 Understanding the relation between masculinity and fitness and how this is changing
			5490 words

 

Contents

List of Illustrations……………………………………………………………………….Page 3

Introduction.…………………………………………………………………......Page 4

Main text…………………………………………………………………………………Page 6

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….Page 13

Images…………………………………………………………………………….Page 15

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………..Page 19

List of Illustrations

1.)  The Nuclear Family – AtlantaBlackStar.com - https://atlantablackstar.com/2014/12/29/12-ways-black-children-are-discriminated-against-in-foster-care-system/nuclear-family/

2.)  The semiotics of Charles Sanders Peirce – Symbols http://stuffaboutliterature.blogspot.com/2015/05/peirces-triadic-model-interpreting-signs.html

3.)  Mars and Venus Symbols - https://creativemarket.com/BestPics/573527-Mars-and-Venus-icons-on-white

4.)  Body Positive Movement - MIGA Swimwear: Sharing Stories in the Disfigurement Community to Combat Stigma - https://www.thebodypositive.org/blog/miga-swimwear-sharing-stories-in-the-disfigurement-community-to-combat-stigma

5.)  Alyssa Milano’s Original #MeToo Tweet - https://twitter.com/Alyssa_Milano/status/919659438700670976/photo/1?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E919659438700670976&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gmanetwork.com%2Fnews%2Fhashtag%2Fcontent%2F629680%2Fmetoo-trends-on-twitter-as-alyssa-milano-encourages-sexual-abuse-victims-to-come-forward%2Fstory%2F

6.)  Rachel McLish - The first woman to win a Ms Olympia title in 1980 – https://www.greatestphysiques.com/rachel-mclish/

7.)  Facebook Gender identity options http://www.takepart.com/article/2014/02/18/facebook-announces-50-new-gender-options

Introduction

This essay will address the questions and concepts of masculinity. It will firstly address, how can this concept be identified? Is it a determined set of values and principles or does it take more than one meaning over time? The same could be asked about the fitness industry, in order to begin to understand why it has become increasingly popular in modern life. Throughout this investigation into masculinity, and its association with the fitness industry, several important areas will be addressed in order to answer these questions. The essay will explore some of the questions that society has about what gender is, how it is defined through a range of different signifiers (Pierce, 1903) and what they mean to different generations. By first looking into the origins of masculinity and how its meaning has changed for some, we can begin to better understand why identities play a role in society and particularly the fitness industry. This will identify questions such as, whether being a man is something symbolic or biological and how masculinity is linked to gender and sex.

The purpose of the essay is to firstly, look into the way in which masculinity is defined in modern society, including the roles that have been defined as masculine (Connell, 1993) and the struggle that some men feel when trying to fit these roles (Pleck, 1981). It will also establish whether men act according to their perceived roles or socially perceived identity, and whether these roles or identities are necessary to fitness. As a result of the findings, the second part of the essay will look into the actions of men and their efforts to conform to these predetermined roles and values (Pleck, 1981). Overall, the investigation may be able to reveal how these roles in society can create unhealthy behaviours but also how they might be positive for the development of society in future. It may also reveal what the fitness industry will do in future, in order to adapt to the social changes of our society and improve people’s lives.

Masculinity by its very definition is most often understood to be the traditional qualities that men possess, which make them ‘men’. These qualities include, but are not limited to, having a muscular or heavy build, being attractive to women, determined and courageous. However, looking back in time reveals that masculinity did not always follow the same values and qualities. As far back as the 1970s, gender started to become a more discussed topic among feminists and scholars alike (Davis, 1975). Defining masculinity was one of the issues that would be discussed among this topic, along with femininity, the roles of genders and the identities that individuals possess. Feminism is likely to have played a role in defining masculinity, as much as it has femininity during the 1970s and 80s. Although this does not seem too long ago, it was a time when feminism would bring light to the issues of gender conformity, social constructs and sex roles (Davis, 1975). All of these would shape the society we now live in today and spark debates about equality, gender and body image. In 1955, sexologist Dr John Money introduced the terminological distinction between biological sex and gender as a role. Throughout his studies into hermaphroditism, Money found gender to be a separate identifier from the sex. This meant sex was identifiable through biological differences in males and females and gender was a societal construct, created with the purpose of identifying males and females (Money, 1955). This approach to identity opened up a new way to look at gender and revealed the social constructs that defined different people. Before this, gender had not often been used as a term that identifies a person. As a result of Money’s studies into gender, the term appeared more frequently in contexts, such as social sciences and documents by the World Health Organisation.

If we think about how the family has changed over time, we can see that the roles and constructs people abide by are different. The nuclear family became most prevalent in the 1970s, even though it is synonymous with the 1950s and 60s (see figure 1). The reason for this would have been because most families at the time were living in a household, consisting of a breadwinner father, a household mother and 1 or more biological children (Hur, 2017). In 1983, The British Social Attitudes Survey was introduced to record data surrounding the opinions of the British public. In 1987, it was found that 48% of participants were in support of gendered separated roles, were men would be breadwinners and women would look after the home (Park et al, 2013). Feminism during the 1970s addressed issues such as these in western culture and proposed an alternative approach to the more patriarchal ideas of the time. Women such as Natalie Davis, had the opinion that there shouldn’t be a single focus on the subjected sex. Rather, there should be more studies into the significance of the sexes and the gender groups they fall under. In Davis’ book she says, ‘Our goal is to discover the range in sex roles and in sexual symbolism in different societies and periods, to find out what meaning they had and how they functioned to maintain the social order or to promote its change.’ (Davis, 1975, p90). This suggests that different societies and cultures have different interpretations of sex roles and symbolism, and also implies that these roles and symbols function differently depending on the society in which it is found. Therefore, it is likely that these roles were made to find a balance, maintain order or to overcome societal problems.

The American semiotician Charles Sanders Pierce theorised that the ‘signifiers’ we associate with the ‘signified’, do in fact have some relation to one another (see figure 2). He then divided this concept into three different parts: The Icon, which is the physical signifier of the idea or thing it is trying to evoke; The Index, which is the direct link to or causal effect of something and the Symbol, which has no relation to the signifier or signified but instead is something we as a society have decided to give meaning to (Pierce, 1903). To put this into context, an icon could be the spoken or written word ‘gender’, which we associate with the identity of people in society. An example of an index would be seeing a man dressed as a woman and associating it with femininity or homosexuality. However, this is not always the case, as an index can also be varied in interpretation depending on the person. Therefore, what we might see as feminine or homosexual could in fact be considered masculine to the man used in the example. Finally, an example of a symbol in the context of gender would be the ‘Mars’ and ‘Venus’ representations of male and female (see figure 3). We know these to be symbols of male and female because they are reinforced through popular culture and society has collectively agreed on their meaning.

Theories of masculinity

Studies into gender and masculinity only began to gain serious attention in the last 50 years. Much of this attention to the subject of masculinity and its identification was brought about when different theories began to emerge. The most notable and referred to of all theories of masculinity is Raewyn W. Connell’s hegemonic masculinity. Connell’s concept of hegemonic masculinity is seen as a culturally ideal form of masculinity. This includes the inequalities of powerful men over women and other men, hierarchy of masculinities and the patriarchal power that certain men of this quality possess (Connell, 1993). It is said to be the most dominant form of masculinity, among the 4 identified in Connell’s hierarchy. The second form of masculinity, after hegemonic is the ‘complicit masculinity’. This consists of men who do not possess all hegemonic qualities, but to some extent still have the benefits of hegemony and dominance over ethnic minorities and women. For people of ethnic minority backgrounds, ‘marginalised masculinity’ is considered to be their status in Connell’s view. In her view, they are seen as inferior to hegemonic and complicit masculinities, but they are still above ‘subordinate masculinity’, which is deemed the lowest ranking status in the hierarchy and is applied to gay men or those who are effeminate (Connell, 2005). On the contrary, hegemonic masculinity is said to be something that is exclusive to men, even though women can possess some of the same qualities. Generally, this form of masculinity contains certain features that others do not, as explained in Rachel Jewkes 2015 article when she says:

  

‘A core element of the construction of hegemonic masculinity is heterosexuality, and to a greater or lesser extent hegemonic masculinity is constructed as a gender position that is as much ‘not gay’ as it is ‘not female’.’ (Jewkes, 2015, p96)

To this extent, we know that western society has in recent years become more progressive and accepting of new masculine identities, but Connell’s concept of an ideal masculinity seems to remain the most prominent and sought after. One explanation for why this may be could include the constructed gender role of men of the past and the values that made them ‘men’. For some in today’s society, this image of a traditional male is seen as the ideal masculine figure to aspire to. As mentioned previously, there had been limited exposure on the study of masculinity before the 1970s and 80s, because gender had not been considered to be more than just social constructs (Davis, 1975, Money, 1955). However, psychologist Joseph Pleck suggests in his 1981 book, The Myth of Masculinity, an alternative viewpoint to previous studies of masculinity. He refers to a period in time between the 1930s and 1980s, in which gender role identity paradigm (GRIP), as he calls it, would have been the current state of masculinity. This paradigm suggests that in order to develop a healthy personality, one must conform to the stereotypical values of their biological sex and the gender roles that came with it (Pleck, 1981).

Pleck’s alternative to GRIP, was to introduce another paradigm known as the gender role strain paradigm (GRSP), which focuses more on the social definitions of the roles of males and females. The strain that Pleck refers to is the way in which boys and men feel pressured to conform to the traditional forms of masculinity, which in turn can result in behavioural problems or other stresses in their lives. One example used by Pleck was that absent fathers or overprotective mothers would result in a child’s failure to achieve the ideal male identity, often resulting in emotionally driven behavioural problems, from school disruption to crime on the streets. As a result of this alternative paradigm, studies into gender can identify the strains men endure when trying to meet the expectations of their traditionally defined values and roles (Pleck, 1981). The paradigm proposed by Pleck could be useful for further studies into gender roles in future, because it provides evidence of role conformity having negative effects on the younger generations.

Gender roles

After looking at different theorists’ perspectives on gender and the roles they believe have been constructed, it was necessary to look into these roles in more detail in order to come to an understanding of the behaviours of men and how they differ from the past. Having already established Connell’s hegemonic masculinity and Pleck’s Gender Role Strain Paradigm, it is therefore possible to analyse how these theories may be put into context. In the context of men’s health, we know that failure to live up to these assigned societal roles can have a detrimental effect on an individual's mental or physical health (Pleck, 1981). This may be because the traditionally identified role of men was to be the breadwinner and provider of the family (Park et al, 2013). Therefore, paid employment is linked to a strong masculine identity and failure to meet this requirement is what creates a gender role strain (Pleck, 1981). In Steve Robertson’s paper, Theories of Masculinity and Men’s Health-Seeking Practices, there is a clear suggestion as to why these roles exist in society. He believes these roles are ‘encouraged through a range of implicit or explicit rewards and sanctions’ (Robertson, 2009, p2), meaning there is reward for the efforts of conformity but there are also boundaries or rules to conforming to the role. As previously mentioned, Rachel Jewkes believes that in order to be considered a hegemonic masculine male, you would need to be heterosexual, non-gay and not a woman. Therefore, for men who are anything other than heterosexual or identify as women, a struggle is presented in conforming to these hegemonic roles. This only further supports Pleck’s theory of a gender role strain paradigm.

In another study, it was found that the attitudes men have towards their own health could be influenced by the ideas surrounding masculine traits (Robertson, 2009). For example, it was suggested that men would often refuse to seek help or treatment for health concerns because they believe it was something only women would be concerned with. This shows that men are trying to be strong and stoic, in the image of an ideal masculine identity, at the expense of their own well-being. However, there were also contradictions of this narrative as some men would also show they had a balanced lifestyle, which included healthy eating and exercise (Robertson, 2009). To add to this, another suggestion points out that health today carries more moral meaning, as presenting oneself as a morally good citizen means showing some concern for your own health. This is where another struggle for men is presented, as they try to find a balance between not showing concern and staying healthy in order to appear as the hegemonic masculine man (Robertson, 2009). If masculine traits are changing over time, then it may mean that the attitudes towards health could change as well. For example, what may have symbolically been considered ‘strong’ in the past would have associations with physical ability. Whereas today, we symbolise ‘strong’ with men showing emotions and exposing vulnerability. In relation to health, this could mean that mental well-being of men is better recognised as a result of showing emotion or ‘being strong’. It also indicates that the change to the symbolic meaning of strength could be beneficial to today’s society, and the stigma surrounding mental health issues.

As previously noted, hegemonic masculinity is primarily seen as exclusively heterosexual (Jewkes, 2015). One other theory of men’s attitudes to health would be that homosexual men are often seen as more concerned with their health and appearance (Robertson, 2009). This could suggest that there is a link between men’s health practices and sexual orientation, as well as other factors including ethnicity and class. Robertson also includes reference to interviews with gay men, which found that the reason they are more health conscious and cared for their appearance was so that they could ‘distance themselves from ‘straight’ men’ (Robertson, 2009, p8). However, on the contrary to this theory, there are many other men who are in good health, take pride in their appearance and still possess hegemonic qualities as straight men. It would be unfair to assume that all men avoid health issues out of fear of being ‘outed’ as having less masculine traits or values. In relation to fitness, in particular public sports, it has been found that team games are generally played by masculine men. As evidenced in Eric Anderson’s article, Sport journalists' views on gay men in sport, society and within sport media, ‘no player in any of the most popular professional men’s soccer leagues in Europe (e.g. Barclays Premier League, La Liga, etc.) has ever publicly come out as gay through the media during or following his career’ (Anderson et al, 2013, p2). This suggests that team sport is considered masculine by today’s definition and the men who play it are likely ‘straight’. Therefore, a difference is presented in what is considered sport and what is considered fitness. Perhaps we associate masculinity with these sports because there are no gay men involved, or perhaps it is related to competitiveness. Being competitive is one core principle of hegemonic masculinity (Connell, 2005), and team games promote competitiveness with a one team takes all mentality.

This might suggest that our idea of health today has also changed, as there are varied attitudes towards personal health, which includes mental and physical well-being. One particular example today would be the rise of the Body-Positive Movement (BPM). Emerging from other movements such as the fat acceptance movement, BPM offers a more universal approach to body acceptance (see figure 4). This community have over recent years, garnered a lot of attention from body-positive activists, health professionals and others. The fundamental idea behind the movement is for people to be more accepting of the body they have, as a way to live a happier life without dissatisfaction of physical image. However, the movement has in recent years been met with criticism, as some believe that it promotes unhealthy body types, which are sending out the wrong message to younger generations. Although the movement encourages people to be more confident in their own skin, it often neglects the notion of health being an issue. As previously stated, men are more likely to ignore health issues and well-being, in an effort to remain masculine (Robertson, 2009). Therefore, as the body-positive movement primarily targets women, men are at a disadvantage when it comes to concerns for health, as they are assumed to be stronger and less worried about body image. This could also indicate that BPM strongly relates health with happiness, which in turn could present problems. These problems may include obesity, heart disease and other unhealthy practices.

In the same way that masculinity has adapted over time in its meaning and variations, femininity has also taken on new approaches. What were once seen as polar opposites, have now become much more than just traits of ‘men and women’. When we think about femininity, we associate it with nurturing, gentleness or sensitivity. This is generally because it too is a social construct, which has throughout time assigned certain roles and expectations for women. More rights for women over the last 100 years have meant a shift in society’s definition of what it means to be feminine. Therefore, like masculinity, femininity can be identified through different cultures in several different ways. In modern western society, femininity can be identified as something empowering, smart and creative in a person's character. In Grayson Perry’s 2016 book, The Descent of Man, he explains how this change in attitudes to femininity could potentially create a fairer and more prosperous society, in which both women and men are embraced for their feminine values (Perry, 2016).

'I see masculinity as being how men behave at present. I think it needs to change to include behaviours that are at present regarded by many as feminine, behaviours that are sensible, life enhancing and planet-saving.' (Perry, 2016, p4)

Although Perry suggests femininity to be something that would benefit both men and women, it is clear that femininity has in recent years become more recognised as something women should embrace and express in their own way. As evidenced by Tracey R. Williams, it is becoming more apparent that femininity has also taken on new and positive connotations as more powerful women are using clothing as a way to express their femininity and ‘to reject the notion that they must dress like men in order to be successful’ (Williams, 2013, p3). Williams also explains how there is a struggle for equality, as there is a difference in the meaning of traditional femininity and the meanings it carries today. Traditional femininity is seen as the values from the first half of the 20th century and particularly the 1950s. Traits for femininity of the time included ‘sociability, humbleness, others-orientation, domestic orientation, passivity, dependence (on men) and submissiveness’ (Williams, 2013, p4). In response to this period of femininity, ‘resistance’ femininity during the 1960s and 70s would embrace ‘independence, assertiveness, rationality, powerfulness, strength and control’ (Williams, 2013, p5).

There are also existing contradictions of today’s feminism, it’s meaning and goals. In the digital age, it has become apparent that feminism today is alive and more prominent than ever. Campaigns and trending social debates are what surround today’s feminism, as well as criticism from both men and women of its intention. What was once symbolic of embracing political, economic and social equality has now multiplied into different variations of feminism. Trending hashtags such as #MeToo were staple points of recent feminism, in which women would share their personal experiences of harassment, sexual assault etc (see figure 5). This could be a sign that feminism is symbolic of strength and unity, as well as solidarity. However, there is evidence to suggest that #MeToo caused backlash for those who were falsely accused of harassment or assault (Piacenza, 2018).

Fitness industry

The state of the fitness industry has over several years become one of the biggest industries in western society, with a worth of over £5 billion in 2018 and over 7’000 gyms now opened across the UK. Why is it that the fitness industry is growing so rapidly and what are the reasons for people’s pursuit of fitness? In this section, there will be evidence that may be able to answer these questions as well as the state of fitness in the near future, as a result of the changes to gender roles and the influence of social media. Fitness has taken on so many connotations and meanings over the years that it is defined more by the individual and their relationship with fitness.

The aim of this section will be to identify the correlation between masculinity and muscularity or fitness in general. Through identifying the differences between evolutionary factors, lifestyles and the influence society has from media ideals, it will be possible to understand why people choose to pursue fitness and whether they do it for health or image. One theory suggests that many people pursue something in life because they are searching for meaning or purpose. This philosophy of essentialism was first idealised thousands of years ago by Plato and Aristotle, in ancient Greece. They believed that everything had a core purpose or set of properties, which would make something what it is. Without these properties it would be something entirely different. In the context of people’s lives, they believed that we are all born with essence, which makes us the person we were born to be. This was a theory that lasted until the late 1800s, when it was challenged by another philosopher named Friedrich Nietzsche, with the introduction of nihilism. This theory that Nietzsche believed in meant that life was meaningless and that we are born without a purpose. Perhaps, finding purpose in our lives is what presents to us a struggle when it comes to conformity.

Another philosopher by the name of Jean-Paul Sarte, added to this theory of nihilism during the mid 20th century. He believed that if we are born first then it is up to us to decide for ourselves what our purpose or essence is. There is no predetermined path that we need to abide by, only the way we choose to live our lives. This could suggest that the influences in our lives are something that allow us to dictate how we live and what our essences are (Sartre, 1943). Though this theory suggests that we are in control of our meaning and purpose in life, it is still true that there are factors which limit our freedom, including the upbringing from our parents, the laws set by government and the religions or beliefs we may choose to follow. This in turn relates to how gender can predetermine how we will live our lives and the things we are interested in following, in search of our meaning or purpose. A term often used by existentialists is ‘Absurd’, which refers to our search for answers or meaning in a meaningless world. This theory of existentialism could prove that although people pursue fitness with the intention of becoming a certain way, whether it be a change in their personality or how they look, in the end there is no true meaning as to why it is necessary or relevant. However, thinking of the meaning of life as subjective will mean that if this pursuit of fitness is what gives some people a purpose in their life then it is a positive thing to them.

It would be fair to assume that today we live in a competitive society, which promotes hard work and dedication to something we are good at. With that in mind, the fitness industry has capitalised on this idea of dedication, as it takes time, effort and consistency to get to a certain goal. We know that through hard work we are rewarded for our efforts and often encouraged and praised by other. Therefore, in a society that seeks approval from others, men pursuing fitness could be explained as a way for them to get the approval they desire. Bodybuilding for example, is something that many people pursue because society has idealized muscular body types as desirable. Therefore, a lot of men decide to dedicate time and effort into this activity because they know they will be praised for their efforts and consistency, which in turn reflects their character as more desirable to others. However, this is not always the case, as some may choose to pursue a healthier lifestyle in order to improve their mentality or relationships, for example. Men may choose to join a gym in the efforts of reaching a personal goal that will ultimately benefit their life in some way, whether it be by the approval of others or to find balance and structure in their own life. The approval received from others is what can give people more meaning and purpose, as a result.

Body dissatisfaction was for a long time something that was more prevalent in females, until studies began to discover that males were fast approaching parity with females when it comes to body dissatisfaction (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). The body image ideals portrayed in the media have resulted in an expectation that many men feel they have to conform to, which in turn can result in compulsive exercise regimes, eating disorders and often unhealthy practices. The ideals referred to are predominantly muscular body types, as the media has portrayed this as the most desirable and attractive build. As explained by April R. Smith, the difference in the media ideals and the average male build is something that increases the likeliness of eating disorders or body dissatisfaction, as the ideals cannot be achieved by everyone and are unrealistic expectations to fulfil (Smith et al, 2011). Furthermore, as a result of these struggles men are likely to show symptoms of depression, lower self-esteem and psychological well-being (Bergeron & Tylka, 2007). Other more extreme harmful practices include the use of diet pills or steroids, in an attempt to achieve an unnaturally achievable body type.

In the previously mentioned theory of Gender Role Strain Paradigm (Pleck, 1981), men would feel pressure to conform to what R. W. Connell called the hegemonic masculinity. In addition to this, a study into male body image and its relation to sexual orientation found that gay men were more likely than ‘straight’ men to experience body image dissatisfaction, which was evidenced by a heightened drive for thinness, eating disorders and body disturbances (Murray & Touyz, 2012). Like the Gender Role Strain Paradigm suggests, gay men are more likely than their ‘straight’ male counterparts to care about their physical appearance and presentation. Therefore, this could suggest that the reason more gay men experience body image dissatisfaction and eating disorders as a result, is because they are concerned with their physical appearance. This is likely due to their susceptibility to media influence and the reinforced thin body ideals they pursue (Robertson, 2009)^.

Although media influence has been a primary focus of concern in this topic, it is not the only contributing factor in men’s pursuit of a muscular body type. One other explanation for this need of a more physically fit build would be through evolutionary factors. Typically, men are seen as physically stronger than women as biological investigations have evidenced this (Bishop & Cureton, 1987). Men’s association of a muscular build with masculinity could be because of heterosexual women’s attraction cues to dominance and status (Smith et al, 2011). These attractions are something that have always existed within human biology and therefore they are not constructed social factors. In April R. Smith’s book, Muscularity versus Leanness, some of the evolutionary factors surrounding attraction are explained in more detail and how they relate to fertility. For men, evolution shows that men desire women who have wider hip ratios, as this is seen as a sign they are likely to be healthy mothers when carrying a child in the womb. For women, evolution shows that there is desire for a strong physique and dominant status, as these are characteristics they wish to pass to their offspring (Smith et al, 2011). Perhaps there are certain evolutionary factors that play a role in our society’s drive for muscularity. However, it is also evident today that there are women who also pursue a more muscular physique with their own body. During the 1980’s in particular, women’s bodybuilding became a more prominent, competitive activity. Many women competed for the titles, and similar to their male counterparts, began using performance-enhancing drugs in order to get bigger (see figure 6). This shows that even in the 80’s women would defy stereotypical body types of gendered roles. Having a more muscular build, as opposed to a toned figure shows that women too can possess the same competitive values and status as their male counterparts.

Conclusion

Masculinity in itself is something that carries more than one meaning, particularly in today’s society. The shift in what masculinity symbolised in the past to what it represents today is evident in our idea of strength. What we once established to be a ‘strong’ man (physically superior, courageous and assertive), have now taken on new meanings such as emotionally strong and mentally strong. This could mean that more men will find comfort in sharing their emotions and dealing with any mental health problems. As a result of this, we can begin to break down social stigma and allow people to pursue a happier life. Joseph Pleck’s gender role strain paradigm provided evidence of the struggles of conformity and what some men feel when expected to live up to these assigned roles. The solution to this in today’s society is to recognise new identities that make roles less constricting and more inclusive to everyone. It was found that the shift in signifiers for masculinity, gender and sex roles would mean society would be more inclusive and respectful of individual identities. However, when several identities carry similar criteria and characteristics there is a need for limitation because ‘defining gender too broadly could lead to a definition that has little meaning’ (Mayer, 2016, pp88)(see figure 7). The gender roles of the past are slowly becoming more outdated because changes made to the divisions of labour, equal rights and shifting attitudes demand less constricting ways to live our lives.

As a result of these social changes, society has been able to improve its standard of living, mental and physical health, and open up new possibilities that were unachievable in the past. However this also meant there were divides in masculinity among men. Homosexual men in particular, were found to distance themselves from straight men because they were more likely to put effort into their appearance. Furthermore, there was evidence to suggest that fitness would be divided as a result, with players in team sports being predominantly straight and homosexual men having little involvement (Anderson et al, 2013). Overall, it became apparent that masculinity could not be directly associated with men’s pursuit of fitness, because firstly, there are more than one identified masculinities (Connell, 2005) and secondly, there were several other factors that could attribute to the same goal. This included the influence of social media, the search for purpose in one’s life and evolutionary factors. As for the future of the fitness industry, it is likely that there will be significant changes to the marketing strategies of fitness companies, as society becomes more diverse and socially inclusive. Making fitness a more accessible part of people’s lives would mean making changes to the current state of fitness. This may include opportunities for people of all genders or sexual orientation in team sports, to the healthy eating practices encouraged by society.

‘Fitness by contrast, is anything but ‘solid’: “It cannot by its nature be pinned down and circumscribed with any precision”.’ (Bauman, 2011: 77)

Images

 

Figure 1

The Nuclear Family

https://atlantablackstar.com/2014/12/29/12-ways-black-children-are-discriminated-against-in-foster-care-system/nuclear-family/

Figure 2

The Semiotics of Charles Sanders Peirce – Symbols

http://stuffaboutliterature.blogspot.com/2015/05/peirces-triadic-model-interpreting-signs.html

Figure 3

Mars and Venus

https://creativemarket.com/BestPics/573527-Mars-and-Venus-icons-on-white

Figure 4

Body Positive Movement

MIGA Swimwear: Sharing Stories in the Disfigurement Community to Combat Stigma

https://www.thebodypositive.org/blog/miga-swimwear-sharing-stories-in-the-disfigurement-community-to-combat-stigma

Figure 5

Alyssa Milano’s Original #MeToo Tweet

https://twitter.com/Alyssa_Milano/status/919659438700670976/photo/1?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E919659438700670976&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gmanetwork.com%2Fnews%2Fhashtag%2Fcontent%2F629680%2Fmetoo-trends-on-twitter-as-alyssa-milano-encourages-sexual-abuse-victims-to-come-forward%2Fstory%2F

Figure 6

Rachel McLish - The first woman to win a Ms Olympia title in 1980

https://www.greatestphysiques.com/rachel-mclish/

Figure 7

Facebook Gender identity options

http://www.takepart.com/article/2014/02/18/facebook-announces-50-new-gender-options

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