Context of Practice 3 Essay
Does masculinity play a part in the
social attitudes towards fitness?
What is masculinity? How can this
concept be identified? Is it a determined set of values and principles or does
it take more than one meaning over time? Throughout the investigation into
masculinity and its association with the fitness industry, several areas of the
topic were explored in a way that may be able to answer some of the questions
that society has about what gender is, how we define different labels and what
they mean to different generations. By first exploring the origins of
masculinity, what it means to be a man and how its meaning has changed for some
we can begin to better understand why identities play a role in society, and
particularly the fitness industry.
The purpose of the essay is to
firstly, look into the way in which masculinity is defined in modern society
and the implications it has on men. This includes the roles that have been
defined as masculine (Surnam, Year; Surname ,Year) and the struggle that some
men feel when trying to conform to these roles. As a result of the findings,
the second part of the essay will look into the ways in which these roles relate
to men’s pursuit of fitness, in an effort to conform to these predetermined
roles and values. Overall, the investigation may be able to reveal how these
roles in society can create unhealthy behaviours but also how they might be a
positive for the development of society in future.
Masculinity by its very definition
is most often understood to be the traditional qualities that men possess,
which make them ‘men’. These qualities include, but are not limited to, having
a muscular or heavy build, being attractive to women, determined and
courageous. However, looking back in time reveals that masculinity did not
always follow the same values and qualities. Looking as far back as the 1970s,
gender started to become a more discussed topic among feminists and scholars
alike (Who, Year). Defining masculinity
was one of the issues that would be discussed among this topic, along with
femininity, the roles of genders and the identities that individuals possess.
This new approach to identity opened
up a new way to look at gender and revealed the social constructs that defined
different people. Feminism during the 1970s addressed different issues that
existed in western culture and gave an alternative approach to the traditional
ideas of the time (ref: traditional - Surname, Year).
Women such as Natalie Davis (Year), had
the opinion that there shouldn’t be a single focus on the subjected sex.
Rather, there should be more studies into the significance of the sexes and the
gender groups they fall under. In Davis’ book she says, ‘Our goal is to
discover the range in sex roles and in sexual
symbolism in different societies and periods, to find out what meaning
they had and how they functioned to maintain the social order or to promote its
change.’ (1975: PP)*site book*, suggesting that society has throughout time constructed and
assigned different sex roles to either maintain a balance or promote change.
Whether or not this has been a positive change is still debatable to this day.
Theories of masculinity
Studies into gender and
masculinity only began to gain serious attention in the last 50 years. Much of
this attention to the subject of masculinity and its identifaction, was brought
about when different theories began to emerge. The most notable and refered of
all theories of masculinity, is Raewyn W. Connell’s hegemonic masculinity.
Connell’s concept of hegemonic masculinity is seen as a culturally ideal form
of masculinity, including the inequalities of powerful men over women and other
men, hierarchy of masculinities and the patriarchal power that certain men of
this quality possess. However, on the contrary, hegemonic masculinity is also
seen as only one form of masculinity, as it is culturally defined by certain
societies, but not all. Generally, this form of masculinity contains certain
features that others do not, as explained in Rachel Jewkes 2015 article when
she says:
A core
element of the construction of hegemonic masculinity is heterosexuality, and to
a greater or lesser extent hegemonic masculinity is constructed as a gender
position that is as much ‘not gay’ as it is ‘not female’. (Rachel Jewkes, 2015)
To this extent,
we know that western society has in recent years become more progressive and
accepting of new gender identities, but Connell’s concept of an ideal
masculinity seems to remain the most prominent and sought after. One
explanation for why this may be, could include the constructed gender role of
men of the past and the values that made them ‘men’. For some in today’s
society, this image of a traditional male is seen as the ideal masculine figure
to aspire to. As mentioned previously, there had been limited exposure on the
study of masculinity before the 1970s and 80s, because gender had not been
considered to be more than just social constructs. However, psychologist Joseph
Pleck suggests in his 1981 book, The Myth of Masculinity, an alternative
viewpoint to previous studies of masculinity. He refers to a period in time
between the 1930s and 1980s, in which gender role
identity paradigm (GRIP), as he calls it, would have been the
current state of masculinity. This paradigm suggests that in order to develop a
healthy personality, one must conform to the stereotypical values of their
biological sex and the gender roles that came with it.
Pleck’s
alternative to (GRIP), was to introduce another paradigm known as the gender
role strain paradigm (GRSP), which focuses more on the social definitions
of the roles of males and females. The strain that
Pleck refers to is the way in which boys and men feel pressured to conform to
the traditional forms of masculinity, which in turn can result in behavioural
problems or other strains in their lives. One example used by Pleck was that
absent fathers or overprotective mothers would result in a child’s failure to
achieve the ideal male identity, often resulting in emotionally driven
behavioural problems, from school disruption to crime on the streets. As a
result of this alternative paradigm, studies into gender can identify the
strains men endure when trying to meet the expectations of their traditionally
defined values and roles.
Gender roles
After looking at
different theorists’ perspectives on gender and the roles they believe have
been constructed, it was necessary to look into these roles in more detail in
order to come to an understanding of the behaviours of men and how they differ
from the past. Having already established Connell’s hegemonic masculinity and
Pleck’s ‘Gender Role Strain Paradigm’, it is therefore possible to analyse how
these theories may be put into context. In the context of men’s health, we know
that failure to live up to these assigned societal roles can have a detrimental
effect on an individual's mental or physical health. This may be because the
traditionally identified role of men is to be the breadwinner and provider of
the family. Therefore, paid employment is linked to a strong masculine identity
and failure to meet this requirement is what creates a ‘gender role strain’. In Steve Robertson’s paper,
Theories of Masculinity and Men’s Health-Seeking Practices, there is a clear
suggestion as to why these roles exist in society. He believes these roles are ‘encouraged through a range of implicit or explicit rewards and
sanctions’, meaning there is reward for the efforts of
conformity but there are also boundaries or rules to conforming to the role.
In another study,
explained by Robertson (Year), it was found
that the attitudes men have towards their own health could be influenced by the
ideas surrounding masculine traits. For example, it was suggested that men
would often refuse to seek help or treatment for health concerns because they
believe it was something only women would be concerned with. This shows that
men are trying to be strong and stoic, in the image of an ideal masculine
identity, at the expense of their own well-being. However, there were also
contradictions of this narrative as some men would also show they had a
balanced lifestyle, which included healthy eating and exercise. To add to this,
another suggestion points out that health today carries more moral meaning, as
presenting oneself as a morally good citizen means showing some concern for
your own health. This is were another struggle for men is presented, as they
try to find a balance between not showing concern and staying healthy in order
to appear as the hegemonic masculine man.
As previously
noted, hegemonic masculinity is primarily seen as exclusively heterosexual. One
other theory of men’s attitudes to health would be that homosexual men are
often seen as more concerned with their health and appearance (Name, Year) . This could suggest that there is a link
between men’s health practices and sexuality, as well as other factors
including ethnicity and class. Robertson also includes reference to interviews
with gay men, which found that the reason they are more health conscious and
cared for their appearance was so that they could distance themselves from
‘straight’ men (Ref) . Therefore, this
could mean that some men are less health conscious and worry less about their
appearance because they do not want to be identified as having the same ideals
as gay men and most women. However, on the contrary to this theory, there are
many other men who are in good health, take pride in their appearance and still
possess hegemonic qualities as straight men. It would be unfair to assume that
all men avoid health issues and presenting their appearance out of fear of
being ‘outed’ as having less hegemonic masculine traits.
In the same way
that masculinity has adapted over time in its meaning and variations,
femininity has also taken on new approaches. What were once seen as polar
opposites, have now become much more than just traits of ‘men and women’. When
we think about femininity, we associate it with nurturing, gentleness or
sensitivity. This is generally because it too is a social construct which has
throughout time assigned certain roles and expectations for women. More rights
for women over the last 100 years has meant a shift in society’s definition of
what it means to be feminine. Therefore, like masculinity, femininity can be
identified through different cultures in several different ways. In modern
western society, femininity can be identified as something empowering, smart
and creative in a person's character. Whereas in the 1970s for example, it
would have been seen as something only women should conform to.
In Grayson
Perry’s 2016 book, The Descent of Man, he explains how this change in attitudes
to femininity could potentially create a fairer and more prosperous society, in
which both women and men are embraced for their feminine values.
'We need to shift
away from seeing masculinity as a closed set of behaviours and from seeing
change as threatening, unnatural and feminizing. I see masculinity as being how
men behave at present. I think it needs to change to include behaviours that
are at present regarded by many as feminine, behaviours that are sensible, life
enhancing and planet-saving.' - Grayson Perry (The
Descent of Man, 2016, p4)
Although Perry
suggests femininity to be something that would benefit both men and women, it
is clear that femininity has in recent years become something more recognised
as something women should embrace and express in their own way. *continue section*
Fitness industry
The state of the
fitness industry has over several years become one of the biggest industries in
western society, with a worth of over £5 billion in 2018 and over 7’000 gyms
now opened across the UK. Why is it that the fitness industry is growing so
rapidly and what are the reasons for people’s pursuit of fitness? In this
section, there will be evidence that may be able to answer these questions as
well as the future state of fitness in the near future as a result of the
changes to attitudes and the influence of social media. Fitness has taken on so
many connotations and meanings over the years that it is defined more by the
individual and their relation with fitness. ‘Fitness by contrast, is anything
but ‘solid’: “It cannot by its nature be pinned down and circumscribed with any
precision”.’ (Baumaun, 2011: 77)
The aim of this
section will be to identify the correlation between masculinity and muscularity
or fitness in general. Through identifying the differences between evolutionary
factors, lifestyles and the influence society has from media ideals, it will be
possible to understand why people choose to pursue fitness and whether they do
it for health or image. One theory suggests that many people pursue something
in life because they are searching for meaning or purpose. This philosophy of
essentialism was first idealised thousands of years ago by Plato and Aristotle,
in ancient Greece. They believed that everything had a core purpose or set of
properties which would make something what it is. Without these properties it
would be something entirely different. In the context of people’s lives, they
believed that we are all born with essence which make us the person we were
born to be. This was a theory that lasted until the late 1800s, when it was
challenged by another philosopher named Friedrich Nietzsche, with the
introduction of nihilism. This theory that Nietzsche believed in meant that
life was meaningless and that we are born without a purpose.
Another philosopher
by the name of Jean-Paul Sarte, added to this theory of nihilism during the mid
20th century. He believed that if we are born first then it is up to us to
decide for ourselves what our purpose or essence is. There is no predetermined
path that we need to abide by, only the way we choose to live our lives. This
could suggest that the influences in our lives are something that allow us to
dictate how we live and what our essences are. Though this theory suggests that
we are in control of our meaning and purpose in life, it is still true that there
are factors which limit our freedom, including the upbringing from our parents,
the laws set by government and the religions or beliefs we may choose to
follow. This in turn relates to how gender can predetermine how we will live
our lives and the things we are interested in following, in search of our
meaning or purpose. A term often used by Existentialists is ‘Absurd’, which
refers to our search for answers or meaning in a meaningless world. This theory
of existentialism could prove that although people pursue fitness with the
intention of becoming a certain way, whether it be a change in their
personality or how they look, in the end there is no true meaning to why it is
necessary or relevant. However, thinking of the meaning of life as subjective,
will mean that if this pursuit of fitness is what gives some people a purpose
in their life then it is a positive thing to them.
It would be fair to
assume that today we live in a competitive society, which promotes hard work
and dedication to something we are good at. With that in mind, the fitness
industry has capitalised on this idea of dedication, as it takes time, effort
and consistency to get to a certain goal. We know that through hard work we are
rewarded for our efforts and often encouraged and praised by other. Therefore,
in a society that seeks approval from others, men pursuing fitness could be
explained as a way for them to get the approval of others. Bodybuilding for
example, is something that many people pursue because society has idealized
muscular body types as desirable. Therefore, a lot of men decide to dedicate
time and effort into this activity because they know they will be praised for
their efforts and consistency, which in turn reflects their character as more
desirable to others. As a result, the approval from others is what can give
people more meaning and purpose in their lives.
Body
dissatisfaction was for a long time something that was more prevalent in
females, until studies began to discover that males were fast approaching a
parity with females when it comes to body dissatisfaction (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). The body image
ideals portrayed in the media have resulted in an expectation that many men
feel they have to conform to, which in turn can result in compulsive exercise
regimes, eating disorders and often unhealthy practices. The ideals referred to
are predominantly muscular body types, as the media has portrayed this as the
most desirable and attractive build. As explained by April R. Smith, the
difference in the media ideals and the average male build is something that
increases the likeliness of eating disorders or body dissatisfaction, as the
ideals cannot be achieved by everyone and are unrealistic expectations to
fulfil (April R. Smith, 2011). Furthermore, as a result of these struggles men are likely to show
symptoms of depression, lower self esteem and psychological well-being (Bergeron & Tylka, 2007). Other more
extreme harmful practices include the use of diet pills or steroids, in an
attempt to achieve an unnaturally achievable body type.
In the previously
mentioned theory of Gender Role Strain Paradigm (Joseph Pleck, 1981), men would feel pressure to conform to what R. W. Connell called the
hegemonic masculinity. In addition to this, a study into male body image and
its relation to sexual orientation found that gay men were more likely than
‘straight’ men to experience body image dissatisfaction, which was evidenced by
a heightened drive for thinness, eating disorders and body disturbances (Stuart B. Murray & Stephen Touyz, 2012). Like the Gender Role Strain Paradigm suggests, gay men are more
likely than their ‘straight’ male counterparts to care about their physical
appearance and presentation. Therefore, this could suggest that the reason more
gay men experience body image dissatisfaction and eating disorders as a result,
is because they are concerned with their physical appearance. This is likely
due to their susceptibility to media influence and the reinforced thin body
ideals they pursue.
Although media
influence has been a primary focus of concern in this topic, it is not the only
contributing factor in men’s pursuit of a muscular body type. One other
explanation for this need of a more physically fit build would be through
evolutionary factors. Typically, men are seen as physically stronger than women
as biological investigations have evidenced this. Men’s association of a
muscular build with masculinity could be because of heterosexual women’s
attraction cues to dominance and status. These attractions are something that
have always existed within human biology and therefore they are not constructed
social factors. In April R. Smith’s book, Muscularity versus Leanness, some of
the evolutionary factors surrounding attraction are explained in more detail
and how they relate to fertility. For men, evolution shows that men desire
women who have wider hip ratios, as this is seen as a sign they are likely to
be healthy mothers when carrying a child in the womb. For women, evolution
shows that there is desire for a strong physique and dominant status, as these
are characteristics they wish to pass to their offspring.
word count 3231
Add detail - to
masculinity
Summarise -
findings (symbolic, role) As they seperate?
What are the key
issues/questions
Fitness campaigns
Symbolism - can you
ever sever that from role? Is role not symbolic?
Products - shower
gel, trainers,
Services
Advertising -
roles, symbolism
Branding - Packard
(8 hidden persuaders - Roots , Power, Love object); Klein - No Logo (citicising
existing attitudes?
Masculinity - body
positive? Why not?
It gives nothing
back to the community it represents
Conclusion
What models give
you the best understanding of your issue and why?
What elements of
your question remain to be tackled?
Practical -
subscription - objects are not known in advance
Gender neutral - ?
Roots - feel,
embossing,
Non-physical (air)
No comments:
Post a Comment